process photography

process

1 noun ['prəʊses]

(a) (series of events, operation) processus m;

∎ the ageing process le processus de vieillissement;

∎ the democratic process le processus démocratique;

∎ the peace process le processus de paix;

∎ by a process of elimination en procédant par élimination;

∎ to be in the process of doing sth être en train de faire qch;

∎ in the process of speaking to him, I found out that his wife was dead c'est en lui parlant que j'ai appris que sa femme était morte;

∎ they're in the process of getting a divorce ils sont en instance de divorce;

∎ the building is in the process of being repaired le bâtiment est en cours de réparation;

∎ in the process of time avec le temps, à la longue;

∎ he lost most of his friends in the process il a perdu presque tous ses amis en faisant cela;

∎ but you ruined the carpet in the process mais tu as abîmé la moquette par la même occasion;

∎ during the process of dismantling au cours du démontage;

∎ the work is in process le travail est en cours

(b) Technology (industrial) procédé m; (chemical) réaction f; Typography & Photography procédés mpl photomécaniques; Computing procédé m, opération f, traitement m

(c) Law procès m, action f en justice; (summons) sommation f de comparaître;

∎ by due process of law par voies légales

(d) Biology (outgrowth) processus m

2 transitive verb ['prəʊses]

(a) (transform → raw materials) traiter, transformer; (→ cheese, meat, milk) traiter; (→ nuclear waste) retraiter; Computing (data) traiter

(b) Administration & Commerce (deal with → order, information, cheque) traiter;

∎ my insurance claim is still being processed ma déclaration de sinistre est toujours en cours de règlement;

∎ we process thousands of applications every week nous traitons des milliers de demandes chaque semaine;

∎ your request is being processed votre demande est en cours de traitement

(c) Law (person) intenter un procès à, poursuivre (en justice)

(d) Photography développer

(e) figurative (come to terms with) faire face à

3 intransitive verb

[prə'ses] (march) défiler; Religion défiler en procession;

∎ the bishops processed slowly down the aisle la procession des évêques avançait lentement dans l'allée centrale

►► Photography process camera tireuse f optique;

Computing & Typography process colours impression f en quadrichromie;

process engineer ingénieur m en procédés;

process engineering ingénierie f de procédés;

process printing impression f en couleurs

process [ˈprəʊses]

1. noun

   a. (natural) processus m ; (official) procédure f

• the process of digestion le processus de la digestion

• a natural process un processus naturel

• the legal process takes a year la procédure juridique prend un an

• it's a slow process ça prend du temps

   b. to be in the process of moving être en train de déménager

• he saved the girl, but injured himself in the process il a sauvé la petite fille mais, ce faisant, il s'est blessé

2. transitive verb

[+ raw materials] traiter ; [+ application] s'occuper de

• your application will take six weeks to process l'examen de votre candidature prendra six semaines

• so that we can process your order afin de donner suite à votre commande

3. compounds

► processed cheese noun fromage m fondu

► processed foods plural noun aliments mpl transformés

► processed peas plural noun petits pois mpl en boîte

* * *

1) gen, Computing processus m (of de)

2) ( method) procédé m

transitive verb

1) gen, Administration, Computing traiter

2) Industry transformer [raw materials, food product]; traiter [chemical, waste]

3) Photography développer [film]

4) Culinary ( mix) mixer; ( chop) hacher

1) Religion, History faire des processions

2) sout ( move)

processed ['prəʊsest] past participle adjective [food] qui a subi un traitement; [meat, peas] en conserve; [steel] traité

1) фотография ( область науки и техники)

2) фотосъёмка, фотографирование

- advertising photography

- aerial photography

- black-and-white photography

- color photography

- continuous tone photography

- document photography

- halftone photography

- high-speed photography

- high-speed still photography

- infrared photography

- laser photography

- line photography

- magazine photography

- nonsilver photography

- persistent internal polarization photography

- process-camera photography

- shadow photography

- silver photography

- spectroscopic photography

- stereoscopic photography

- still high-speed photography

- wet-plate photography

  процесс; ход; движение; течение; прием; способ; обрабатывать; воспроизводить (фотомеханическим способом)

  ♦ background projection process рирпроекция

  ♦ cold-type process фотонаборный процесс

  ♦ Henderson process процесс изготовления форм глубокой печати для газетных и деловых изданий

  ♦ screen photography process съемка актеров или объектов перед синим или зеленым экраном

  ♦ traveling matte process комбинированная киносъемка по методу "блуждающей маски"

1) Техника: репродукционная фотография

2) Полиграфия: съёмка на репродукционном фотоаппарате

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Educated at Harrow, where he first showed an interest in science, and at Cambridge, Talbot was an outstanding scholar and a formidable mathematician. He published over fifty scientific papers and took out twelve English patents. His interests outside the field of science were also wide and included Assyriology, etymology and the classics. He was briefly a Member of Parliament, but did not pursue a parliamentary career.

Talbot's invention of photography arose out of his frustrating attempts to produce acceptable pencil sketches using popular artist's aids, the camera discura and camera lucida. From his experiments with the former he conceived the idea of placing on the screen a paper coated with silver salts so that the image would be captured chemically. During the spring of 1834 he made outline images of subjects such as leaves and flowers by placing them on sheets of sensitized paper and exposing them to sunlight. No camera was involved and the first images produced using an optical system were made with a solar microscope. It was only when he had devised a more sensitive paper that Talbot was able to make camera pictures; the earliest surviving camera negative dates from August 1835. From the beginning, Talbot noticed that the lights and shades of his images were reversed. During 1834 or 1835 he discovered that by placing this reversed image on another sheet of sensitized paper and again exposing it to sunlight, a picture was produced with lights and shades in the correct disposition. Talbot had discovered the basis of modern photography, the photographic negative, from which could be produced an unlimited number of positives. He did little further work until the announcement of Daguerre's process in 1839 prompted him to publish an account of his negative-positive process. Aware that his photogenic drawing process had many imperfections, Talbot plunged into further experiments and in September 1840, using a mixture incorporating a solution of gallic acid, discovered an invisible latent image that could be made visible by development. This improved calotype process dramatically shortened exposure times and allowed Talbot to take portraits. In 1841 he patented the process, an exercise that was later to cause controversy, and between 1844 and 1846 produced The Pencil of Nature, the world's first commercial photographically illustrated book.

Concerned that some of his photographs were prone to fading, Talbot later began experiments to combine photography with printing and engraving. Using bichromated gelatine, he devised the first practicable method of photo engraving, which was patented as Photoglyphic engraving in October 1852. He later went on to use screens of gauze, muslin and finely powdered gum to break up the image into lines and dots, thus anticipating modern photomechanical processes.

Talbot was described by contemporaries as the "Father of Photography" primarily in recognition of his discovery of the negative-positive process, but he also produced the first photomicrographs, took the first high-speed photographs with the aid of a spark from a Leyden jar, and is credited with proposing infra-red photography. He was a shy man and his misguided attempts to enforce his calotype patent made him many enemies. It was perhaps for this reason that he never received the formal recognition from the British nation that his family felt he deserved.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Apprenticed to a silversmith in London, Archer's interest in coin design and sculpture led to his taking up photography in 1847. Archer began experiments to improve Talbot's calotype process and by 1848 he was investigating the properties of a newly discovered material, collodion, a solution of gun-cotton in ether. In 1851 Archer published details of a process using collodion on glass plates as a carrier for silver salts. The process combined the virtues of both the calotype and the daguerreotype processes, then widely practised, and soon displaced them from favour. Collodion plates were only sensitive when moist and it was therefore essential to use them immediately after they had been prepared. Popularly known as "wet plate" photography, it became the dominant photographic process for thirty years.

Archer introduced other minor photographic innovations and in 1855 patented a collodion stripping film. He had not patented the wet-plate process, however, and made no financial gain from his photographic work. He died in poverty in 1857, a matter of some embarrassment to his contemporaries. A subscription fund was raised, to which the Government was subsequently persuaded to add an annual pension.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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The young Eastman was a clerk-bookkeeper in the Rochester Savings Bank when in 1877 he took up photography. Taking lessons in the wet-plate process, he became an enthusiastic amateur photographer. However, the cumbersome equipment and noxious chemicals used in the process proved an obstacle, as he said, "It seemed to be that one ought to be able to carry less than a pack-horse load." Then he came across an account of the new gelatine dry-plate process in the British Journal of Photography of March 1878. He experimented in coating glass plates with the new emulsions, and was soon so successful that he decided to go into commercial manufacture. He devised a machine to simplify the coating of the plates, and travelled to England in July 1879 to patent it. In April 1880 he prepared to begin manufacture in a rented building in Rochester, and contacted the leading American photographic supply house, E. \& H.T.Anthony, offering them an option as agents. A local whip manufacturer, Henry A.Strong, invested $1,000 in the enterprise and the Eastman Dry Plate Company was formed on 1 January 1881. Still working at the Savings Bank, he ran the business in his spare time, and demand grew for the quality product he was producing. The fledgling company survived a near disaster in 1882 when the quality of the emulsions dropped alarmingly. Eastman later discovered this was due to impurities in the gelatine used, and this led him to test all raw materials rigorously for quality. In 1884 the company became a corporation, the Eastman Dry Plate \& Film Company, and a new product was announced. Mindful of his desire to simplify photography, Eastman, with a camera maker, William H.Walker, designed a roll-holder in which the heavy glass plates were replaced by a roll of emulsion-coated paper. The holders were made in sizes suitable for most plate cameras. Eastman designed and patented a coating machine for the large-scale production of the paper film, bringing costs down dramatically, the roll-holders were acclaimed by photographers worldwide, and prizes and medals were awarded, but Eastman was still not satisfied. The next step was to incorporate the roll-holder in a smaller, hand-held camera. His first successful design was launched in June 1888: the Kodak camera. A small box camera, it held enough paper film for 100 circular exposures, and was bought ready-loaded. After the film had been exposed, the camera was returned to Eastman's factory, where the film was removed, processed and printed, and the camera reloaded. This developing and printing service was the most revolutionary part of his invention, since at that time photographers were expected to process their own photographs, which required access to a darkroom and appropriate chemicals. The Kodak camera put photography into the hands of the countless thousands who wanted photographs without complications. Eastman's marketing slogan neatly summed up the advantage: "You Press the Button, We Do the Rest." The Kodak camera was the last product in the design of which Eastman was personally involved. His company was growing rapidly, and he recruited the most talented scientists and technicians available. New products emerged regularly—notably the first commercially produced celluloid roll film for the Kodak cameras in July 1889; this material made possible the introduction of cinematography a few years later. Eastman's philosophy of simplifying photography and reducing its costs continued to influence products: for example, the introduction of the one dollar, or five shilling, Brownie camera in 1900, which put photography in the hands of almost everyone. Over the years the Eastman Kodak Company, as it now was, grew into a giant multinational corporation with manufacturing and marketing organizations throughout the world. Eastman continued to guide the company; he pursued an enlightened policy of employee welfare and profit sharing decades before this was common in industry. He made massive donations to many concerns, notably the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and supported schemes for the education of black people, dental welfare, calendar reform, music and many other causes, he withdrew from the day-to-day control of the company in 1925, and at last had time for recreation. On 14 March 1932, suffering from a painful terminal cancer and after tidying up his affairs, he shot himself through the heart, leaving a note: "To my friends: My work is done. Why wait?" Although Eastman's technical innovations were made mostly at the beginning of his career, the organization which he founded and guided in its formative years was responsible for many of the major advances in photography over the years.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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A cousin of the photographic pioneer J.N. Niepce, he attended the military school of Saumur, graduating in 1827. Niepce de St Victor had wide scientific interests, but came to photography indirectly from experiments he made on fading dyes in military uniforms. He was transferred to the Paris Municipal Guard in 1845 and was able to set up a chemical laboratory to conduct research. From photographic experiments performed in his spare time, Niepce de St Victor devised the first practicable photographic process on glass in 1847. Using albumen derived from the white of eggs as a carrier for silver iodide, he prepared finely detailed negatives which produced positive prints far sharper than those made with the paper negatives of Talbot's calotype process. Exposure times were rather long, however, and the albumen-negative process was soon displaced by the wet-collodion process introduced in 1851, although albumen positives on glass continued to be used for high-quality stereoscopic views and lantern slides. In 1851 Niepce de St Victor described a photographic colour process, and between 1853 and 1855 he developed his famous cousin's bitumen process into a practicable means of producing photographically derived printing plates. He then went on to investigate the use of uranium salts in photography. He presented twenty-six papers to the Académie des Sciences between 1847 and 1862.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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The son of a minor official in a magistrate's court, Daguerre showed an early aptitude for drawing. He was first apprenticed to an architect, but in 1804 he moved to Paris to learn the art of stage design. He was particularly interested in perspective and lighting, and later showed great ingenuity in lighting stage sets. Fascinated by a popular form of entertainment of the period, the panorama, he went on to create a variant of it called the diorama. It is assumed that he used a camera obscura for perspective drawings and, by purchasing it from the optician Chevalier, he made contact with Joseph Nicéphore Niepce. In 1829 Niepce and Daguerre entered into a formal partnership to perfect Niepce's heliographic process, but the partnership was dissolved when Niepce died in 1833, when only limited progress had been made. Daguerre continued experimenting alone, however, using iodine and silver plates; by 1837 he had discovered that images formed in the camera obscura could be developed by mercury vapour and fixed with a hot salt solution. After unsuccessfully attempting to sell his process, Daguerre approached F.J.D. Arago, of the Académie des Sciences, who announced the discovery in 1839. Details of Daguerre's work were not published until August of that year when the process was presented free to the world, except England. With considerable business acumen, Daguerre had quietly patented the process through an agent, Miles Berry, in London a few days earlier. He also granted a monopoly to make and sell his camera to a Monsieur Giroux, a stationer by trade who happened to be a relation of Daguerre's wife. The daguerreotype process caused a sensation when announced. Daguerre was granted a pension by a grateful government and honours were showered upon him all over the world. It was a direct positive process on silvered copper plates and, in fact, proved to be a technological dead end. The future was to lie with negative-positive photography devised by Daguerre's British contemporary, W.H.F. Talbot, although Daguerre's was the first practicable photographic process to be announced. It captured the public's imagination and in an improved form was to dominate professional photographic practice for more than a decade.

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